欧美口爆视频 PhD candidate Chilton Tippin working to document migrant mortality in El Paso

With the desert sun beating down on the jagged trails of Mount Cristo Rey just outside El Paso, Texas, Chilton Tippin, a PhD candidate in cultural anthropology at the University of 欧美口爆视频 Boulder, wipes sweat from his brow. His backpack is weighed down with bottles of water and food鈥攏ot for himself, but for the people his research group expects to find hiding in the desert.

In the distance, he sees groups of migrants who just crossed the Mexican border, many of them exhausted and injured, pursued by Border Patrol agents on horseback and in helicopters.

Tippin recalls this almost-daily scene on the mountain, a pilgrimage site that has become the deadliest crossing point along the U.S.-Mexico border.

He spent the summer of 2024 . Though he originally expected to study the environmental impact of the Rio Grande, the unfolding humanitarian crisis was too important to ignore.

鈥淢y dissertation is about the Rio Grande, but since the river has been turned into a border and become heavily militarized, it has become a site for a lot of violence and death,鈥� he says.

Yet, when Tippin tried to gather data on how many migrants were dying in the El Paso region, he ran into another problem: bureaucratic stonewalls. Many deaths, he discovered, weren鈥檛 being officially counted at all.

Without accurate data, the full scale of the crisis in El Paso is obscured, he says, and over the course of his fieldwork, Tippin saw how systemic failures, political pressure and logistical challenges combine to erase countless migrant deaths from public view.

He鈥檚 on a mission to change that.

Life and death on Mount Cristo Rey

鈥淲e would go up the mountain regularly,鈥� Tippin recalls, 鈥渂ecause a lot of the migrants and undocumented people trying to sneak across would be staged just on the Mexican side of the border.鈥�

Mount Cristo Rey, the northernmost peak of the Sierra Ju谩rez mountain range, is famous for the 29-foot-tall statue of Jesus on the Cross at its summit. With roughly two-thirds of the mountain in Texas and the rest in Mexico, it has also become a major hotspot for border crossings.

鈥淲hen we would approach, often there were 20 or 30 people just sitting there in the desert with no shade, and it鈥檇 be 110 degrees (F). They would come running to us, and we would drop our backpacks and hand out 50 water bottles and any food we could carry,鈥� Tippin says.

The migrants he and his team encountered weren鈥檛 just battling the elements. Many had endured days or weeks of travel, cartel-controlled smuggling routes and the fear of being caught and detained, or worse.

鈥淏ecause of the whole process of being chased by Border Patrol in the desert, where the heat is up to 115 degrees, people are malnourished, depleted and exhausted,鈥� Tippin says. 鈥淭hen they try to swim across the river, and they鈥檙e drowning. Or they鈥檙e going out into the desert and getting lost and succumbing to dehydration and heat illness.鈥�

The mountain itself is a paradox, both a path to safety and a trap ready to spring. The rugged terrain provides cover from Border Patrol and makes expeditions up the slopes more difficult, but it also means there鈥檚 no easy escape if something goes wrong.

鈥淭he mountain itself is such a surreal landscape,鈥� Tippin recalls. 鈥淲e often felt like we were in The Matrix or The Twilight Zone because we could be up there just kind of walking on the trails, and people are getting chased and detained and tackled.

鈥淚t鈥檚 also weird because it鈥檚 a religious place. But at the same time you鈥檙e moving through that landscape, people are running for their lives.鈥�

The cartel鈥檚 grip on the El Paso region

For many of the migrants Tippin encountered, danger didn鈥檛 begin on the mountain. In Ciudad Ju谩rez, just across the border from El Paso, the Ju谩rez Cartel has taken control of border crossings, turning human smuggling into a lucrative extension of its drug trade.

鈥淚 don鈥檛 want to push this idea that the violence is just a 鈥楳exico problem.鈥� But the reality is that people wouldn鈥檛 be forced into these cartel-run routes if they had a safe, legal way to cross the border,鈥� Tippin says.

Cartel smugglers, known as coyotes, lead groups of migrants across the border, often charging thousands of dollars per person. In the mountains, the cartel stations lookouts to monitor movements of migrant groups and evade the Border Patrol.

鈥淭hey are just posted up on the peaks, watching for agents and guiding groups through,鈥� Tippin says. 鈥淏order Patrol would try to menace them with helicopters, but they never actually go up there because it鈥檚 too dangerous.鈥�

Even for individuals who make it safely across the border, the ordeal often isn鈥檛 over. Many are sent right back into cartel-controlled territory, where they face violence, extortion or death.

鈥淭hat鈥檚 the deadly dynamic,鈥� Tippin says. 鈥淧eople cross, they get pushed back and then they get extorted again. Women get assaulted. Families get separated. And they keep trying, because what choice do they have?鈥�

The deaths no one wants to count

When the official numbers of migrant deaths didn鈥檛 match what Tippin was seeing on the ground, he quickly realized documenting the crisis would be harder than expected.

鈥淚 went through the whole summer filing open records requests, and I was told, 鈥榃e don鈥檛 count migrants,鈥欌�� he recalls. 鈥淭hen when I tried to get autopsy reports, they said that if I wanted to see the records of drowning victims, it would cost over $4,000. And if I wanted a broader dataset鈥攃overing deaths in the desert as well鈥擨 got a bill for over $100,000.鈥�

Tippin notes that U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) , which may lead to underreporting. If a migrant drowns in the El Paso canals or is found in the desert by local first responders, the Texas National Guard or civilians, they aren鈥檛 counted in the official data. If they die in a hospital after being rescued, they also don鈥檛 make the list. Even if remains are discovered by CBP personnel but the person was not in custody, guidelines state the death isn鈥檛 reportable.

As a result, the official data can be off by hundreds鈥攊f not thousands鈥攐f deaths.

This isn鈥檛 just an oversight, Tippin notes. It鈥檚 part of a pattern. No More Deaths, a volunteer organization, , with actual migrant deaths sometimes exceeding CBP鈥檚 reports by two to four times.

For Tippin, the answer to why this happens is simple: Acknowledging the full scale of the crisis would shed light on the deadly consequences of U.S. border policies.

鈥淚 think that the deaths go uncounted because it鈥檚 inconvenient for the whole political and bordering apparatus to have it be known that, as a consequence of their policies and their practices, hundreds of people are dying in the United States, in the deserts and in the rivers that form the border,鈥� he says.

Fighting for the truth

Despite the resistance, Tippin and several grassroots organizations aren鈥檛 giving up the fight. They鈥檙e using the limited data they have, as well as anecdotal fieldwork, to push for policy changes, local resolutions and new initiatives aimed at tracking and preventing migrant deaths.

鈥淚t鈥檚 such a preventable public health trend,鈥� he says, 鈥渁nd the way we attempt to address problems such as these is to gather data on them.

鈥淲e need to make what鈥檚 happening apparent and use the data to strategically implement interventions that could help reverse this alarming and tragic trend.鈥�

One organization in Tucson, Arizona, , is using this approach. It works directly with the local medical examiner鈥檚 office to gather precise data on migrant deaths. That data is then used to strategically place water stations in high-risk areas.

Tippin and others want to replicate that success in El Paso, but without government cooperation, progress is slow.

鈥淭he medical examiner鈥檚 office in Tucson works with humanitarian groups,鈥� he explains. 鈥淚n El Paso, they won鈥檛 even meet with us. That鈥檚 the difference.鈥�

But activists like Tippin aren鈥檛 waiting for permission. They continue to document deaths, advocate for policy changes and pressure local officials to increase transparency.

Recently, Tippin and his research team went before the El Paso County commissioners, pushing them to acknowledge the crisis and demand more transparency from the medical examiner鈥檚 office.

鈥淲e recently had them pass a resolution decrying all the deaths in El Paso. It鈥檚 a step in the right direction, but we need more than words鈥攚e need action,鈥� he says.

In the El Paso region, migrants continue to suffer and die from preventable causes. The work to help them is slow, and the resistance is strong. Yet Tippin and others refuse to back down because, ultimately, it鈥檚 not about numbers.

鈥淭hese aren鈥檛 just statistics,鈥� he says. 鈥淭hese are people. And until we start treating them as such, nothing is going to change.鈥� 

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Following a blockbuster opening weekend for Captain America: Brave New World, 欧美口爆视频 Boulder鈥檚 Benjamin Robertson reflects on the appeal of superhero franchises and why they dominate studio release schedules

Captain America continues to conquer obstacles and crush villains鈥�not bad for a man approaching age 85.

The comic book hero made his debut in print in December 1940, then on TV in 1966 and hit the silver screen in 2011鈥�gaining massive momentum along with way. This past Presidents Day weekend, the fourth installment of the superhero series, 鈥淐aptain America: Brave New World,鈥� hit the top spot at the box office in the United States, and .

It鈥檚 the fourth-best Presidents Day launch on record, behind three other superhero movies: Black Panther, Deadpool and Ant-Man and the Wasp: Quantumania.

What鈥檚 going on here? What鈥檚 giving Captain America his muscle? And why do folks keep going back to these same stories, characters and worlds over and over?

Benjamin Robertson, a University of 欧美口爆视频 Boulder assistant professor of English who specializes in popular culture, film and digital media, says there are two answers: 鈥淥ne, the genre is comforting in its repetitiveness. This is the least interesting answer, however,鈥� he says.

The second answer appears a little more sinister. Robertson says viewers return to these stories because creators make 鈥渟tory worlds that solicit consumers鈥� attention and that must always grow and that turn increasingly inward.鈥�

He says the first Iron Man film is about America intervening in the Middle East following Sept. 11, but later M欧美口爆视频 (Marvel Cinematic Universe, the franchise behind many superhero movies) films seem less and less about real or historical matters and more about the M欧美口爆视频 itself.

鈥淎s a colleague once put it, every M欧美口爆视频 film is simply the trailer for the next M欧美口爆视频 film, the result of a strategy that seeks to create a fandom that can鈥檛 escape from the tangled narrative that the franchise tells,鈥� he explains.

In short, Robertson says if consumers want to know the full narrative鈥攖he full world that these films and series describe鈥攖hey have to go to the theater. 鈥淎s this world becomes about itself rather than about external history or real-world events, a certain 鈥榣ock in鈥� manifests, making it harder and harder to not see these films if one wants to understand the world they create.鈥�

鈥楩latter American identities鈥�

Another trick is that M欧美口爆视频 films tend to 鈥渇latter American identities鈥� by celebrating militarism, focusing on charismatic heroes who try to do the right thing unconstrained by historical necessity and suggesting that everything will work out in the end, Robertson says.

鈥淚 can see the more comforting aspects of these films having appeal to many consumers. Don鈥檛 fear climate change, fear Thanos [a supervillain] and other embodiments of badness,鈥� he says.

As to the question of whether franchises are just growing their worlds and the characters in them, or retelling the same story because it makes money, Robertson says each M欧美口爆视频 film is a piece of intellectual property, but an individual film is far less valuable than a world.

鈥淎 film might spawn a sequel or sequels, but without developing the world, the sequels will likely be of lesser quality and, eventually, no longer be profitable or not profitable enough to warrant further investment,鈥� Robertson says. 鈥淏ut if producers develop the world into a complex environment that contains numerous characters with distinct and yet intersecting story arcs, well, then you have the foundation for potentially unlimited storytelling and profit in the future.鈥�

He adds that in that context, Captain America has obvious value as an individual character, but he has far more value as part of a world that can develop around him and allow for new actors to play him as he evolves with the world.

So, as the world grows as an intellectual property and in narrative development, "so does the potential for profit, although we may now be seeing the limits of this dynamic as some M欧美口爆视频 films have not been doing as well at the box office over the past five years, although there are likely several factors that contribute to this decline.鈥�

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Are Elizabeth Bennet and Mr. Darcy the greatest love story? 欧美口爆视频 Boulder鈥檚 Grace Rexroth weighs in

What is the greatest love story of all time?

This is a question many like to consider, discuss and debate, especially around Valentine鈥檚 Day. Whether you鈥檙e more of a romantic at heart or a casual softie, you鈥檝e more than likely heard or expressed the opinion that there is no love story quite like Elizabeth Bennet and Mr. Darcy in Jane Austen鈥檚 Pride and Prejudice.

Despite being more than 200 years old, something about this classic novel transcends centuries and social changes to remain a text with which many people connect, whether on the screen, stage or in the pages of the novel.

What makes this love story so memorable and so beloved? Is it truly the greatest love story of all time, or is there something else about it that draws readers in again and again?

According to Grace Rexroth, a teaching assistant professor in the University of 欧美口爆视频 Boulder Department of English who is currently teaching a global women鈥檚 literature course focused on writing about love, the historical context in which Jane Austen wrote Pride and Prejudice is crucial to understanding the novel's inner workings.

The Regency Era was a period of intense revolution and change. There still were very strict social norms surrounding marriage and status, which are evident in the novel, but it鈥檚 also important to consider that proto-feminist ideals, such as those expressed by Mary Wollstonecraft, were influencing conversations about the position of women in society, Rexroth notes.

Even at the time of publication, Pride and Prejudice was perceived differently between opposing political groups鈥攎ore conservative thinkers saw it as a story that still rewarded conservative values, such as humility, beauty (always beauty) and a reserved disposition. Other, more progressive readers saw it as standing up to the status quo.

To this day, readers and scholars often debate whether Austen was writing to criticize or praise Regency Era ideas about women鈥檚 autonomy. In The Making of Jane Austen, author Devoney Looser observes, 鈥�It sounds impossible, but Jane Austen has been and remains a figure at the vanguard of reinforcing tradition and promoting social change.鈥�

Nuance helps it endure

The fact that Pride and Prejudice lends itself to different interpretations is part of the reason why it鈥檚 lived such a long life in the spotlight, Rexroth says. It has managed to appeal to what people鈥攕pecifically women鈥攈ave wanted and fantasized about through different eras following its publication.

According to Looser, both film and stage adaptations have highlighted different aspects of the text for different reasons. During its first stage adaptations, for instance, the emphasis was often placed on Elizabeth鈥檚 character development. In fact, the most tense and climactic scene in these early performances was often her final confrontation with Lady Catherine De Bourgh, when Elizabeth asserts that she鈥檚 going to do what鈥檚 best for herself instead of cowering under Lady Catherine鈥檚 anger at her engagement to her nephew, Mr. Darcy.

Such scenes emphasize Elizabeth鈥檚 assertiveness and self-possession in the face of social pressure. Featuring this scene as the climax of the story is quite different from interpretations that focus on the suppressed erotic tension between Elizabeth and Darcy.

This doesn鈥檛 mean that adaptations prioritizing the romantic union didn鈥檛 soon follow. In 1935, Helen Jerome flipped the narrative on what Pride and Prejudice meant to a modern audience by casting a young, conventionally attractive man to play Mr. Darcy. Looser refers to this change as the beginning of 鈥渢he rise of sexy Darcy,鈥� a phenomenon that has continued in the nearly 100 years following this first casting choice.

In many ways, the intentional decision to make Mr. Darcy physically desirable on stage coincided with the rising popularity of the 鈥渞omantic marriage鈥濃�攁 union founded on love and attraction rather than on status and societal expectations. Before this, Mr. Darcy鈥檚 being handsome was just a nice perk to Elizabeth, not a clear driving force for her feelings towards him.

From loathing to love

This is not to say there鈥檚 no implication of attraction in the original novel, though. There鈥檚 something magnetic about Darcy and Elizabeth鈥檚 relationship from the very beginning, when they profess their distaste for each other as the reigning sentiment between them (though readers can see that Elizabeth really doesn鈥檛 seem to mind being insulted by Mr. Darcy until later in the novel). It鈥檚 a quintessential 鈥渆nemies to lovers鈥� narrative, Rexroth says.

In that way, the novel offers a hint of the unruly desires driving many creative decisions in most modern film adaptations鈥攆rom the famous 鈥渨et shirt鈥� scene in the 1995 BBC adaptation with Colin Firth and Jennifer Ehle, to what some critics argue is a highly over-dramatized first proposal scene staged in the rain in the 2005 Keira Knightly version. That sense of tension between Elizabeth and Darcy, unsaid but palpable, is a draw that has reeled in modern audiences to the point of obsession.

Rexroth suggests that part of the novel鈥檚 appeal hinges on what can and cannot be expressed in the text: 鈥淏ecause discussions of sex and desire are fairly repressed in the novel, emotional discourse has more free reign, which is often appealing to modern readers who experience a reverse set of tensions in modern life. Modern discourse, while often privileging a more open discussion of sex, often places tension on how and why we express emotion鈥攅specially in romantic relationships.鈥�

Modern sexual liberation, especially through the eyes of women, has been an integral part of feminist movements. However, feminism also offers reminders that when the world still is governed by misogynistic ideas about sex鈥攊ncluding women as the object and men as more emotionally unattached sexual partners鈥攌ey aspects of what sex can mean from an anti-misogynist viewpoint are lost.

This, perhaps, is one reason that Pride and Prejudice is so appealing to women battling standards of sexuality centered around patriarchy, and who find themselves longing for something more鈥攁 鈥渓ove ethic,鈥� as author bell hooks called it.

However, is Pride and Prejudice really a perfect example of a "love ethic鈥�? Rexroth also asks her classes to consider the pitfalls of how readers continue to fantasize about Pride and Prejudice, potentially seeing it as a model for modern romantic relationships.

Questions of true autonomy

While Elizabeth exercises her autonomy and free choice by rejecting not one but two men, standing up to Lady Catherine and overall just being a clever and witty heroine, she is still living within a larger society that privileges the status of her husband over her own and sees her value primarily in relation to the ways she circulates on the marriage market.

For that reason, women are never really autonomous, Rexroth says. How can they be, when Elizabeth鈥檚 decision to reject a man could potentially ruin her life and the lives of her sisters? Or when her sister Lydia鈥檚 decision to run away with Mr. Wickham nearly sends the entire family into ruin? What happens to Elizabeth in a world without Darcy?

This, according to Rexroth, is the danger of looking at Pride and Prejudice uncritically. Though readers and scholars may never know if Austen meant it to be a critical piece about the wider societal implications of the marriage market鈥攁lthough it can be inferred pretty strongly that she did mean it that way, Rexroth says鈥攊t does have startling implications towards modern relationships that we tend to find ourselves in.

鈥淢odern discussions of love often focus on the individual, psychological aspects of relationships rather than the larger social networks that structure them,鈥� Rexroth explains. 鈥淢y students sometimes think that if they just work on themselves, go to the gym and find the right partner, everything will be okay鈥攖hey鈥檙e not always thinking about how our larger social or political context might play a role in their love lives.鈥�

The fantasy of Pride and Prejudice tends to reinforce this idea, she adds. It鈥檚 not that the world needs to change鈥攖he fantasy is that finding the right man will 鈥渃hange my world.鈥� Such fantasies tend to treat patriarchy as a game women can win if they just play it the right way, Rexroth says. If a woman finds the right man or the right partner, that man will somehow provide the forms of social, economic or political autonomy that might otherwise be lacking in a woman鈥檚 life.

Such fantasies sidestep the question of what produces true autonomy鈥攁nd therefore the capacity to fully participate in a romantic union, she adds.

So, is Pride and Prejudice the ultimate love story? Ardent fans might argue yes鈥攁 鈥減erfect ending鈥� with a 鈥減erfect man鈥� is the quintessential love story, and who can blame readers for wanting those things? Happy endings are lovely. 

Others, however, might still wish that Mr. Darcy had behaved in a more gentlemanlike manner.

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Xuedong Liu of 欧美口爆视频 Boulder is one of 170 鈥榚xceptional inventors鈥� who are helping to 鈥榩ropel us into the future,鈥� academy says

Xuedong Liu, a University of 欧美口爆视频 Boulder professor of biochemistry, has been named a member of the 2024 Class of Fellows by the , the group recently announced.

Liu is one of an elected group of 170 鈥渆xceptional inventors鈥� honored in 2024.

The 2024 cohort of fellows exemplifies the academy鈥檚 belief that groundbreaking innovation knows no bounds and inventors can be found everywhere, the NAI said, adding that the honorees represent 39 U.S. states and 12 countries.

鈥淭his year鈥檚 class of NAI Fellows represents a truly impressive caliber of inventors. Each of these individuals are tackling real-world issues and creating solutions that propel us into the future. Through their work, they are making significant contributions to science, creating lasting societal impact and growing the economy,鈥� said Paul Sanberg, NIA president.

He added: 鈥淣AI Fellows as a whole are a driving force of innovation, generating crucial advancements across scientific disciplines and creating tangible impacts as they move their technologies from lab to marketplace.鈥�

Liu鈥檚 laboratory works to understand the fundamental mechanisms underlying cell-cell communication. Aberrations of normal signaling networks can lead to human diseases such as cancer. The Liu laboratory is developing novel therapeutic solutions for treating cancer and neurodegenerative diseases.

Liu is co-founder of OnKure Therapeutics (Nasdaq: OKUR) and founder of Vesicle Therapeutics. His lab discovered and patented a profile-specific histone deacetylase inhibitor, which has entered phase II clinical trials, and a new type of drug delivery system.

He received his PhD in genetics from the University of Wisconsin-Madison in 1994 and was a National Institutes of Health and Department of Defense postdoctoral fellow at the Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research at Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Liu joined the 欧美口爆视频 Boulder faculty in 2000 and won the university鈥檚 Inventor of the Year Award in 2013.

"I am deeply honored to receive this recognition,鈥� Liu said. 鈥淭his accolade not only validates the impact of our team's work but also highlights the indispensable contributions of my trainees, collaborators, colleagues and co-founders over the years. More than a personal milestone, it is a testament to the collective effort and dedication that have driven our innovations in tackling challenging problems. Additionally, this accomplishment reflects the entrepreneurial spirit cultivated by Venture Partners at our university, whose support has been essential.鈥�

The 2024 Class of Fellows will be honored and presented their medals by a senior official of the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) at the  on June 26 in Atlanta.

The NAI Fellows Program was established to highlight academic inventors who have demonstrated a prolific spirit of innovation in creating or facilitating outstanding inventions that have made a tangible impact on quality of life, economic development and the welfare of society.

The NAI Fellows Program has 2,068 fellows worldwide, representing more than 300 universities and governmental and nonprofit research institutes. Collectively, the Fellows hold more than 68,000 issued U.S. patents, which have generated more than 20,000 licensed technologies, 4,000 companies and created more than 1.2 million jobs. In addition, more than $3.2 trillion in revenue has been generated based on NAI Fellow discoveries, the academy said.

Among all NAI Fellows, there are more than 170 presidents and senior leaders of research universities, governmental and nonprofit research institutes; about 755 members of the National Academies of Science, Engineering and Medicine; about 63 inductees of the National Inventors Hall of Fame; 70 recipients of the U.S. National Medal of Technology and Innovation and U.S. National Medal of Science; and 57 Nobel Laureates.

The  is the highest professional distinction awarded solely to academic inventors. The full list of 2024 Fellows can be found .

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Lightning strikes link weather on Earth and weather in space

There are trillions of charged particles鈥� and , the basic building blocks of matter鈥�whizzing around above your head at any given time. These high-energy particles, which can travel at close to the speed of light, typically remain thousands of kilometers away from Earth, trapped there by the shape of Earth鈥檚 magnetic field.

Occasionally, though, an event happens that can jostle them out of place, sending electrons . These high-energy particles in space make up what are known as the , and their discovery was one of the first of the space age. from my research team has found that electromagnetic waves generated by lightning can trigger these electron showers.

A brief history lesson

At the start of the space race in the 1950s, professor and his research team at the University of Iowa were tasked with building an experiment to fly on the United States鈥� very first satellite, . They designed sensors to study , which is caused by high-energy particles originating from the Sun, the Milky Way galaxy, or beyond.

After Explorer 1 launched, though, they noticed that their instrument was detecting significantly than expected. Rather than measuring a distant source of radiation beyond our solar system, they appeared to be measuring a local and extremely intense source.

This measurement led to the Van Allen radiation belts, two doughnut-shaped regions of high-energy electrons and ions encircling the planet.

Scientists believe that the inner radiation belt, peaking about 621 miles (1000 kilometers) from Earth, is composed of electrons and high-energy protons and is relatively stable over time.

The outer radiation belt, about three times farther away, is made up of high-energy electrons. This belt . Its location, density and energy content may vary significantly by the hour in response to solar activity.

The discovery of these high-radiation regions is not only an interesting story about the early days of the space race; it also serves as a reminder that many scientific discoveries have come about by happy accident.

It is a lesson for experimental scientists, , to keep an open mind when analyzing and evaluating data. If the data doesn鈥檛 match our theories or expectations, those theories may need to be revisited.

Our curious observations

While I teach the history of the space race in a space policy course at the University of 欧美口爆视频, Boulder, I rarely connect it to my own experience as a scientist researching Earth鈥檚 radiation belts. Or, at least, I didn鈥檛 until recently.

In a study led by Max Feinland, an undergraduate student in my research group, we stumbled upon some of our own of Earth鈥檚 radiation belts. Our findings have made us rethink our understanding of Earth鈥檚 inner radiation belt and the processes affecting it.

Originally, we set out to look for very rapid鈥�sub-second鈥� entering the atmosphere from the outer radiation belt, where they are typically observed.

that a type of electromagnetic wave known as 鈥渃horus鈥� can knock these electrons out of position and send them toward the atmosphere. They鈥檙e called chorus waves due to their when listened to on a radio receiver.

Feinland developed an algorithm to search for these events in decades of measurements from the . When he showed me a plot with the location of all the events he鈥檇 detected, we noticed a number of them were not where we expected. Some events mapped to the inner radiation belt rather than the outer belt.

This finding was curious for two reasons. For one, chorus waves aren鈥檛 prevalent in this region, so something else had to be shaking these electrons loose.

The other surprise was finding electrons this energetic in the inner radiation belt at all. Measurements from prompted renewed interest in the inner radiation belt. Observations from the Van Allen Probes suggested that high-energy electrons are in this inner radiation belt, at least not during the first few years of that mission, from 2012 to 2014.

Our observations now showed that, in fact, there are times that the inner belt contains high-energy electrons. How often this is true and under what conditions remain open questions to explore. These high-energy particles and harm humans in space, so researchers need to know when and where in space they are present to better design spacecraft.

Determining the culprit

One of the ways to disturb electrons in the inner radiation belt and kick them into Earth鈥檚 atmosphere actually begins in the atmosphere itself.

Lightning, the that light up the sky during thunderstorms, can actually generate electromagnetic waves known as .

These waves can then travel through the atmosphere out into space, where they in the inner radiation belt鈥�much as chorus waves interact with electrons in the outer radiation belt.

To test whether lightning was behind our inner radiation belt detections, we looked back at the electron bursts and compared them with . Some lightning activity seemed correlated with our electron events, but much of it was not.

Specifically, only lightning that occurred right after so-called geomagnetic storms resulted in the bursts of electrons we detected.

are disturbances in the near-Earth space environment often caused by large eruptions on the Sun鈥檚 surface. This solar activity, if directed toward Earth, can produce what researchers term . Space weather can result in stunning auroras, but it can also disrupt satellite and power grid operations.

We discovered that a combination of weather on Earth and weather in space produces the unique electron signatures we observed in our study. The solar activity disturbs Earth鈥檚 radiation belts and populates the inner belt with very high-energy electrons, then the lightning interacts with these electrons and creates the rapid bursts that we observed.

These results provide a nice reminder of the interconnected nature of Earth and space. They were also a welcome reminder to me of the often nonlinear process of scientific discovery.

Lauren Blum is an assistant professor in the Department of Astrophysical and Planetary Sciences.

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In honor of Darwin Day Feb. 12, 欧美口爆视频 Boulder evolutionary biologist Daniel Medeiros explains what we get right and wrong about Darwinism

For evolutionary biologists, the big day is imminent.

No, not Valentine鈥檚 Day.

For many scientists, educators, historians and humanists, the upcoming event of note is , which supporters say is a time to reflect and act on the principles of intellectual bravery, perpetual curiosity, scientific thinking and a hunger for truth, as embodied by .

The noted British naturalist and biologist is widely recognized for his book  which is considered the foundation of modern evolutionary biology. Darwin Day is celebrated internationally every Feb. 12, the anniversary of Darwin鈥檚 birth on Feb. 12, 1809, outside of London.

Scientists say it鈥檚 hard to quantify the impact Darwin had on evolutionary theory. At the same time, , and some propagandists have used his scientific theories to support a variety of  and, in some cases, would likely be appalled by.

Recently, Professor Daniel Medeiros with the 欧美口爆视频 Boulder Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology talked with 欧美口爆视频 Arts and Sciences Magazine about some of the mistaken ideas associated with Darwin while also delineating why some of his scientific concepts can be so difficult to grasp. His responses have been lightly edited for style and condensed for space.

Question: One idea about Darwin is that he originated the idea of evolution. True or false?

Medeiros: False. I actually had a colleague, Ned Friedman, a plant evolutionary biologist, who taught a whole course on evolutionary thinking before Darwin. And in fact, Darwin鈥檚 own grandfather, Erasmus Darwin, had some pretty clear evolutionary thoughts and logic. I think Darwin collected the most data and articulated the best case for evolution by natural selection, but he didn鈥檛 come up with it out of whole cloth.

That鈥檚 how things happen in evolution鈥攖here鈥檚 鈥榗onvergence.鈥� Similar solutions can occur in different lineages around the same time or given the same environmental pressures. That鈥檚 the idea of evolution by natural selection; I think several scientists came to that conclusion simultaneously. So, it wasn鈥檛 all Darwin, but I think he did the best, most comprehensive way of presenting things.

Question: What about the idea that Darwin鈥檚 theory on evolution encompasses the origins of life?

Medeiros: I think he may have hypothesized on the origin of the living creature from a primordial soup of chemicals, but I don鈥檛 think he knew enough about chemistry or cell biology to go beyond that. I don鈥檛 know how he would have even begun to hypothesize about cellular evolution.

Question: What about the idea that Darwin believed humans are descended from apes?

Medeiros:  That鈥檚 kind of a tough one, even for some of my students in my upper division class. The proper way to think about evolution is as a family tree. The idea that humans evolved from a chimp or humans evolved from a monkey; specifically, what you think of a modern monkey, is incorrect. It鈥檚 easy to conceive given that those modern species are clearly related to us, but we are not descended from them.

Now, our last common ancestor looked something like a chimp and would definitely be classified as a 鈥済reat ape鈥�. We also had an ancestor who looked something like a monkey, but technically, 鈥榳e came from a monkey鈥� is not how you would describe it in evolutionary biology terms. We evolved from species that were chimp-like, but we鈥檙e not chimps and we did not come from modern monkeys.

Any species that鈥檚 alive today is a successful modern species, as much as we are. If it鈥檚 around today, it鈥檚 a survivor. It鈥檚 a successful species that has its own set of innovations. If it鈥檚 living today, it鈥檚 its own success story.

Question: What about the idea some attribute to Darwinism that modern humans aren鈥檛 evolving?

Medeiros: That鈥檚 incorrect. That鈥檚 a property of all living things鈥攖hat they are always changing. It鈥檚 not something you can stop. DNA is always accumulating mutations. There鈥檚 always genetic variation, and that variation responds to the environment. In the short window of time we have been around, it鈥檚 hard to see, but it鈥檚 true.

I鈥檓 not sure how we鈥檙e evolving, but there鈥檚 no organism that鈥檚 not evolving. So, we鈥檙e changing for sure, in some way, but I don鈥檛 know how. It will be interesting to see.

Question: There鈥檚 also this idea associated with Darwinism that animals are deliberately attempting to adapt to their environments. Accurate or not?

Medeiros: That鈥檚 a misconception. The word 鈥榚volution鈥� means unfolding, originally, which implies that you have some truth or something that鈥檚 unfolded or revealed. But it鈥檚 actually much more chaotic and there鈥檚 a huge random factor.

From the organism鈥檚 perspective, they鈥檙e just throwing out babies with variations. And hopefully, one of them sticks. And if one sticks, your lineage hangs around and has another chance for more mutation. So, it鈥檚 random and it鈥檚 chaotic.

Andthere are limitations. Species go extinct all the time. Maybe their environment changed too quickly, and they were unable to adapt. Maybe they just didn鈥檛 hit upon the right mutations, or there could be constraints to their development or their genome that wouldn鈥檛 allow adaptive traits to evolve and they go extinct. That鈥檚 common.

(The word) 鈥榚volved,鈥� in terms of how people use it in common language, it鈥檚 like, 鈥極h, I evolved. I became better.鈥� It鈥檚 about this idea of better and more. But then extinction is evolution, too. It鈥檚 just change over time, however, that manifests itself.

A cool thing that I teach in my class is that a lot of animal evolution since the Cambrian or a little later鈥攈as been about loss; trimming down, getting rid of what you don鈥檛 need. I think that鈥檚 one thing that鈥檚 not really recognized too much, that evolution is not always鈥攐r even mostly鈥攁bout gaining fancy new features. It鈥檚 not necessarily this march toward more and more sophistication. It鈥檚 a lot about use it or lose it鈥攁bout losing features that are not adaptive anymore. A lot of evolutionary change, especially in animals, is loss.

Then you have these blockbuster new things, like feathers, which are a huge innovation, or a turtle shell, or the human brain, which is another huge innovation. But then, even more than that, what makes a lot of species different from each other is that they鈥檝e lost different things.

Question: Why do you think it seems so hard for people to grasp the idea of evolution?

Medeiros: Evolution is hard to understand because it鈥檚 inherently about processes beyond any individual鈥檚 experience. It鈥檚 about things happening on a scale of tens, hundreds, thousands and millions of years. That鈥檚 hard for us to fathom, and it鈥檚 not necessarily intuitive.

It鈥檚 kind of like the idea of the earth spinning around the sun. That鈥檚 not intuitive. If you look outside, that鈥檚 not what you see happening. You don鈥檛 feel like you鈥檙e spinning. The sun moves up over you. It defies your experience as a human.

So, it鈥檚 easy to have misconceptions and I don鈥檛 fault people for that. It鈥檚 a hard, hard concept just by itself, much less the implications where it could be perceived as taking human beings down several notches, as just another animal that evolved.

Question: There is an idea in some quarters that evolution and religion, whether it's Christianity or another faith, are incompatible. Any thoughts on the notion that if you believe in one of those ideas you can鈥檛 believe in the other?

Medeiros: I think that鈥檚 mostly on the religion side of things. It鈥檚 really up to you, whether you, as a religious person, can believe in evolution. That鈥檚 a great thing about religion: If you want to incorporate evolution into it, you could surely work it in, but if it somehow interferes with your beliefs, you won鈥檛. You can shape your religion to exclude any kind of science, if you want.

In my education, I鈥檝e had several biology teachers, evolutionary biologists and otherwise, who were quite religious people and (evolution) didn鈥檛 interfere with their belief.

As I understand it, Darwin himself was a religious person for most of his life, and finally ended up calling himself agnostic. You can see some of that in his writing. With some (discoveries) it was like, 鈥極K, where does this place God? This evidence maybe puts the role of God in a different place than I was taught when I was younger.鈥� I think he used some language like that in his writing.

I鈥檓 not a historian, but I don鈥檛 think Darwin ever excluded a role for religion.

Question: It seems like not long after Darwin published The Origin of Species, people began using his work to promote their own political, religious or ideological agendas?

Medeiros: Yes, 100%. I couldn鈥檛 give you the exact timing on when that started to happen, but I think it was while he was still alive that people began to formulate ideas around his work. I think that鈥檚 not uncommon: You figure out some scientific truth and there will be people to exploit it for good and bad.

Evolution by natural selection and survival of the fittest鈥攁ll of those touch phrases and concepts鈥攊n isolation have been used to justify some very horrible things.

Question: The Darwin Awards were created a few years back as a tongue-in-cheek honor bestowed on people who removed themselves from the gene pool by doing something really dumb. How far removed are those awards from anything associated with the actual British biologist?

Medeiros: I remember first hearing about them in graduate school. At the time, I thought it was humorous, but after I became a parent, the idea of people getting hurt and dying in weird ways was no longer so funny.

And really, that鈥檚 not how natural selection works. It鈥檚 not like, you鈥檙e an evolutionary loser, so you get attacked by a lion because you鈥檙e dim-witted.

Really, it鈥檚 all about the numbers at the margins. For example, with this particular adaptive allele, you have lineage that has 5% more offspring鈥攁nd you do that over many generations and throw in some random environmental change鈥攁nd they鈥檙e the fittest. But their fitness is just kind of at the margins and there鈥檚 a lot of luck involved, too.

So, it鈥檚 not as clear as, 鈥極h, this is person鈥檚 a ding-dong; they strapped themselves to a rocket' or whatever. That鈥檚 not an accurate representation of Darwin鈥檚 ideas.

Question: Will you be doing anything for Darwin Day this year?

Medeiros: In past years I鈥檝e given a talk about Darwin, mentioning some things about the 鈥榤odern synthesis鈥� concept, which includes things that Darwin was not aware of at the time鈥攆illing in some of the gaps he was unaware of鈥攍ike DNA and genes.

That鈥檚 not to take anything away from Darwin. It鈥檚 fun to read Darwin because he鈥檚 so modern in how he thought and deduced things. I think a lot of biologists feel like, 鈥榃ell, if I was back then, that鈥檚 how I would have figured things out, too.鈥�

But to answer your question, nothing special planned, like reading from Origins. I might celebrate by going to my lab and writing a grant.  Also, my youngest son has the same birthday as Darwin, so we will be focusing on that! I think Darwin would appreciate that 鈥� by all accounts he wasn鈥檛 just a great scientist, but a really devoted dad.

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欧美口爆视频 Boulder researchers Colleen Reid, Emma Rieves and their colleagues explored the potential impact of objective and perceived greenspace exposure on mental health

If you or a loved one is struggling with mental health, you鈥檙e not alone. Roughly one in every five adults experienced symptoms of anxiety or depression over the past two weeks, according to a 2022 CDC . The good news is a better state of mind could be right in your backyard鈥攍iterally.

Perceived greenspace exposure鈥攚hich represents a person鈥檚 perception of the amount and quality of access to and time spent in nearby greenspace鈥攎ay have a significant positive effect on certain aspects of mental health, according to from an interdisciplinary University of 欧美口爆视频 Boulder team.

With Associate Geography Professor Colleen Reid at the helm, researchers from the Geography, Psychology and Neuroscience departments as well as the Institute for Behavioral Genetics and the Institute of Behavioral Science explored the link between greenspace exposure and stress, anxiety and depression.

Their study revealed a strong association between perceived greenspace exposure and reduced anxiety. Could better mental health be as simple as a walk in the park? Perhaps, says lead study author and geography PhD candidate Emma Rieves.

The relationship between greenspace and mental health 鈥渋sn鈥檛 just about the greenspace that鈥檚 empirically there,鈥� which they measured by aggregating the green pixels, representing greenspace, from aerial imagery, also known as objective green space. 鈥淭he relationship is mainly influenced by aspects of green space that aren鈥檛 well captured by objective measures, such as the quality of the green space, how much time someone spends in green space and how accessible it is,鈥� she says.

Research in the time of COVID-19

Reid started the study in late 2019, says Rieves, who arrived on campus to begin her graduate education in the fall of 2020. 鈥淚t was weird,鈥� she recalls. 鈥淏ut the [geography] department did a lot to facilitate interactions between students despite the restrictions that were in place at the time.鈥�

Even before Rieves dove into the research project, she had personal experience with nature鈥檚 capacity to ease her mind, particularly during the early days of lockdown. 鈥淏eing in nature definitely helped to combat some of the negative emotions you have when you鈥檙e stuck sitting in your house, doomscrolling and wiping down all your produce,鈥� she recalls.

To determine the effect of greenspace exposure on the study鈥檚 research subjects, the team had to switch gears early in the data-collection process to account for the extra stress associated with the COVID-19 pandemic, says Rieves.

Once COVID-19 public health restrictions were in place, however, they added pandemic-specific questions to their mental health survey so that subjects could share the extent to which they were impacted by stressors such finances, resources and the possibility of infection. Their analysis could then control for pandemic-specific variables to more accurately identify the connection between mental health and greenspace exposure, says Rieves.

Is greenspace exposure a key to mental health?

The researchers found that perceived greenspace exposure was directly linked to reduced anxiety metrics and had a borderline statistically significant relationship with lower levels of depression metrics. Meanwhile, objective greenspace exposure bore no statistically significant association with anxiety, depression or stress.

In other words, when it came to mental health, and anxiety in particular, objective greenspace exposure mattered far less than subjects鈥� perceptions of greenspace exposure.

鈥溾�夿ased on the presence of green pixels, a vacant lot full of weeds would register as having a high green space signal. But if you were there, you might not perceive it as a superabundant green space,鈥� says Rieves. 鈥淲e found that other factors, like the quality of the environment in this example, is more important to the mental health and greenspace relationship.鈥�

At the same time, the findings revealed a positive association between socioeconomic status and both objective and perceived greenspace, where people with higher socioeconomic status had higher perceived and objective greenspace exposure.

The takeaway

While no one is promising that a walk in the woods is a magic bullet, getting out in nature is never a bad idea, says Rieves. And no matter what the pixels indicate, or how many minutes a day you spend around trees, the data indicate that people鈥檚 perceptions of their own greenspace exposure are important to unlocking better mental health, says Rieves.

鈥淭his study doesn鈥檛 prescribe any specific level of greenspace exposure needed to reap its mental health benefits, but if you feel like you鈥檙e surrounded by greenspace, it鈥檚 probably good for you.鈥�

欧美口爆视频 Boulder scientists Naomi Friedman and Samantha Freis contributed to this research.

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Political science Professor Federiga Bindi says the new, Islamic rebel-led government is telling the West what it wants to hear but that the situation on the ground is concerning

In May, University of 欧美口爆视频 Boulder Department of Political Science professor and foreign policy expert  was asked to spearhead the creation of a conference sponsored by the  regarding the future of Syria. The Middle Eastern country had been mired in a grinding civil war for 13 years with no end in sight, and AFSC was concerned the world had largely forgotten about the conflict and its resulting humanitarian crisis.

By the time the two-day conference, titled Reframing the Conversation Around Syria in Europe, convened in early December at the European Parliament in Brussels, Belgium, the  that had governed the country for more than 70 years collapsed spectacularly as Muslim rebels swept through the country and seized the capital of Damascus.

鈥淓verybody was surprised鈥攅ven that the rebel attack took place,鈥� says Bindi, noting the war had essentially settled into a stalemate for some time. 鈥淭hat鈥檚 the interesting thing, because to prepare for this conference, I talked to a lot of experts. I went to Brussels several times鈥攁nd nobody expected something like this. So, everybody was taken by surprise, and everyone was surprised how quickly things happened.鈥�

In past years, the Assad regime had been able to successfully battle insurgents with support from Russia and Iran. However, with Russia bogged down in its war in Ukraine and Iran on the defensive after Israel鈥檚 attacks on it, as well as allies Hamas in Gaza and Hezbollah in Lebanon鈥攆ollowing the Oct. 7, 2023, Hamas terrorist attack on Israel鈥攖he situation on the ground in the Middle East is very different today, Bindi says.

鈥淎lso, there are indications that they (the rebels) were not alone鈥攖he U.S.,  Israel and Turkey directly or indirectly supported them, because Syria was an ally of Iran, and if you take away Syria as an ally of Iran, then Iran can鈥檛 resupply Hezbollah in Lebanon,鈥� she says. 鈥淪o, the change (in leadership in Syria) is bad for the Russians, but I think it鈥檚 even worse for Iran.鈥�

Meanwhile, Israel and Turkey can be considered the winners resulting from the outcome and the new major regional power in the Middle East, she adds.

What next for Syria?

At the December conference in Brussels, attendees鈥攊ncluding foreign policy experts and Syrian activists鈥攚ere 鈥渃learly happy that Assad was gone, but they were also very wary,鈥� Bindi says. 鈥淭heir first message was, 鈥榃e shouldn鈥檛 just say this is great, because we don鈥檛 know what happens next.鈥欌��

While many Syrians at home and abroad鈥攁nd many in the West鈥攈ope for peace and healing in Syria, Bindi says there are too many variables to know if that鈥檚 possible. One particular concern is whether the new government, composed of leaders from the Islamic rebel group Hay鈥檃t Tahrir Al-Sham (HTS), will show tolerance for the country鈥檚 religious and ethnic minorities and support basic human rights.

While noting that , the charismatic leader of HTS, has swapped his combat fatigues for business suits, dropped his wartime pseudonym for his real name, and downplayed his past jihadist views for a more moderate form of Syrian nationalism in interviews with Western media, Bindi says the news that has been coming out of Syria is not encouraging.

鈥淭he way he (Sharaa) presents himself, dressed in a suit and speaking with western media, he鈥檚 been very conciliatory. For example, he just met with the custodian of religious sites in Jerusalem. He said, 鈥楥hristians are going to be allowed to live in peace. Don鈥檛 worry. I鈥檓 a big supporter of the Pope.鈥� So, the rhetoric is very conciliatory, very Western, but the acts are not. The little news we have out of Syria is that Alawi (members of a religious minority to which previous President  belongs and drew power from) have been beaten and even killed.鈥�

Separately, when the German foreign minister, who is a woman, recently visited Syria with a European delegation, HTS leaders declined to shake hands with her but did shake hands with male delegation members. Bindi says that could suggest HTS endorses strict Muslim prohibitions regarding interactions between men and women, in contrast with Syria鈥檚 recent past as a Muslim but largely secular country that allowed women many of the freedoms found in the West.

鈥淪o, that may suggest they (HTS) are not that liberal after all,鈥� she says. 鈥淎 former envoy to Syria, who I know very well, told me he鈥檚 convinced Syria is going to be a theocracy-style government like in Afghanistan.鈥�

Meanwhile, Bindi says rightwing leaders in Europe are using the change in leadership in Syria to say that the roughly 2 million Syrian refugees can safely return home, but it鈥檚 her view that 鈥淪yria is not safe by any means.鈥�

Foreign troops occupy Syria

Currently, several foreign governments have military troops occupying portions of Syria, and Bindi says the potential for clashes with Syrian forces and with each other remains ever-present, noting that those foreign powers have sometimes competing objectives. Israel has occupied the Golan Heights and nearby areas in Syria for what it says are security reasons, the United States has occupied portions of the country with the stated objective of fighting ISIS while also supporting the Kurds, and Turkish armed forces have occupied the northern portion of Syria to support rebel forces and to potentially combat what it calls Kurdish terrorists. Meanwhile, Russia, which maintained naval and air bases in Syria during Assad鈥檚 regime, still has some troops in the country.

鈥淎t the moment, there is no territorial integrity in Syria,鈥� Bindi says. 鈥淚 don鈥檛 see the Kurds giving up their territory in Syria. I don鈥檛 see the Turks giving up their territory. I don鈥檛 see the Russians leaving, if they can keep their bases. And I don鈥檛 see the Americans and the Israelis withdrawing. Nobody wants to give up their territories, so it鈥檚 a big mess.鈥�

The new leadership in Syria likely isn鈥檛 happy that portions of the country are occupied by foreign powers, but it鈥檚 not in a position to demand their withdrawal, and it may grudgingly accept the status quo if it is allowed to implement a theocracy, she says.

Given the situation in Syria today, it鈥檚 hard to predict what comes next, Bindi says. Still, one scenario that Bindi says is very unlikely is that Bashar Assad, who fled to Moscow as the rebels closed in on Damascus, will ever return to power.

鈥淚 think he鈥檚 gone, just like the Shah in Persia,鈥� she says. 鈥淗e鈥檚 going to have a golden exile in Russia, and that will be it. He should be happy he saved his skin, unlike Saddam Hussein (in Iraq) and unlike Muammar Gaddafi (in Libya).鈥�

The other scenario that Bindi finds very unlikely is that the United States and Europe will commit major military forces to Syria to attempt to promote nation-building and democracy, like they attempted with Iraq and Afghanistan.

鈥淭he strategy of exporting democracy to the Middle East has failed miserably, because our understanding of the region was faulty and the Middle East is such a kaleidoscopically complex region,鈥� she says. 鈥淪o, I don鈥檛 think we will put boots on the ground in Syria. That, I think, is fairly certain. The more plausible is that we just let them be, like we ultimately did in Afghanistan.鈥�

Risks remain for the West, as well as Syria

Bindi says such a scenario does not automatically mean that the risks to the West are minimized, however, with the new Republican U.S. administration and Congress.

鈥淭o be frank, the most important variable is what will happen in Washington, D.C., after Jan. 20. That鈥檚 the true reality,鈥� she says. 鈥淪yria is definitely not a priority for Trump, but the neighboring states are. The loss of (Assad) was a blow to Iran, and we know that for Trump, Iran is a foe, so what might the (new administration) allow Israel to do? I say that because Israel can only attack with the support of the U.S. It鈥檚 a very dangerous situation.鈥�

Meanwhile, with so much recent conflict in the Middle East, Bindi says she is concerned that people in the West have become numb to all the fighting.

鈥淚 think we鈥檝e gotten way too used to violence,鈥� she says. 鈥淭he images don鈥檛 touch us anymore. Kids die. We鈥檝e become accustomed to the horror. We鈥檝e lost our humanity, and I think that鈥檚 very scary.鈥�

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In honor of what would have been Paul Newman鈥檚 100th birthday, 欧美口爆视频 Boulder film historian Clark Farmer considers whether there still are movie stars

Movies did not invent stars鈥攖here were stars of theater, opera and vaudeville well before moving pictures鈥攂ut movies made them bigger and more brilliant; in some cases, edging close to the incandescence of a supernova.

Consider a star like Paul Newman, who would have turned 100 Jan. 26. Despite being an Oscar winner for The Color of Money in 1987 and a nine-time acting Oscar nominee, he was known perhaps even more for the radiance of his stardom鈥攖he ineffable cool, the certain reserve, the style, the beauty, the transcendent charisma that dared viewers to look away.

Even now, 17 years after his death in 2008 at age 83, fans still sigh, 鈥淭hey just don鈥檛 make stars like that anymore.鈥�

In fact, if you believe the click-bait headlines that show up in newsfeeds every couple of months, the age of the movie star is over. In with Allure magazine, movie star Jennifer Aniston opined, 鈥淭here are no more movie stars.鈥� And in Vanity Fair鈥檚 2023 Hollywood issue, , 鈥淭he concept of a movie star is someone untouchable you only see onscreen. That mystery is gone.鈥�

Are there really no more movie stars?

鈥淭here are still actors we like and want to go see, so I鈥檇 say there still are movie stars, but the idea of them has changed,鈥� says University of 欧美口爆视频 Boulder film historian Clark Farmer, a teaching assistant professor of cinema studies and moving image arts. 鈥淚 think that sense of larger-than-life glamor is gone, that sense of amazement at seeing these people on the screen.

鈥淲hen we think of what could be called the golden age of movie stars, they had this aristocratic sheen to them. They carried themselves so well, they were well-dressed, they were larger than life, the channels where we could see them and learn about them were a lot more limited. Today, we see stars a lot more and they鈥檙e maybe a little less shiny and not as special in that way.鈥�

Stars are born

In the earliest days of film, around the turn of the 20th century, there weren鈥檛 enough regular film performers to be widely recognized by viewers, Farmer says. People were drawn to the movie theater by the novelty of moving pictures rather than to see particular actors. However, around 1908 and with the advent of nickelodeons, film started taking off as a big business and actors started signing longer-term contracts. This meant that audiences started seeing the same faces over and over again.

By 1909, exhibitors were reporting that audiences would ask for the names of actors and would also write to the nascent film companies asking for photographs. 鈥淏ack then you didn鈥檛 have credits, you only had the title of the film and the name of the production company, so people started attaching names to these stars鈥攆or example, Maurice Costello was called Dimples.鈥�

As the movie business grew into an industry, and as actors were named in a film鈥檚 credits, movie stars were born. In 1915, Charlie Chaplin conflagrated across screens not just in the United States, but internationally, Farmer says.

鈥淵ou could say that what was produced in Hollywood was movies, but studios were also actively trying to produce stars鈥攕tars were as much a product as the movies,鈥� Farmer says. 鈥淭here was always this question of could they take someone who had some talent or some looks or skills like dancing or singing, and would they only rise to the level of extra, would they play secondary characters, or would they become stars? Would people see their name and want to come see the movies they were in?

鈥淪tars have this ineffable quality, and studios would have hundreds of people whose job it was just to make stars; there was a whole machinery in place.鈥�

During Hollywood鈥檚 studio period, actors would sign contracts with a studio and the studio鈥檚 star machinery would get to work: choosing names for the would-be stars, creating fake biographies, planting stories in fan magazines, arranging for dental work and wardrobes and homes and sometimes even relationships.

For as long as it has existed, the creation and existence of movie stars has drawn criticism from those who argue that being a good star is not the same as being a good actor, and that stars who are bigger than the films in which they appear overshadow all the elements of artistry that align in cinema鈥攆rom screenwriting to cinematography to acting and directing.

鈥淭here鈥檚 always been a mixture of people who consider film primarily a business and those who consider it primarily art,鈥� Farmer explains. 鈥淔ilm has always been a place for a lot of really creative individuals who weren鈥檛 necessarily thinking of the bottom line and wanted to do something more artistic, but they depended on those who thought about it as a business. Those are the people asking, 鈥楬ow do you bring people in to see a movie?鈥� Part of that can be a recognizable genre, it could be a recognizable property鈥攍ike a familiar book鈥攂ut then stars are one more hook for an audience member to say, 鈥業 like Katherine Hepburn, I like her as an actress and as a person, and she鈥檚 in this movie so I鈥檒l give it a try.'

鈥淥ne of the biggest questions in the film industry is, 鈥楬ow can we guarantee people will come see our movie?鈥� And the gamble has been that stardom is part of that equation.鈥�

Evolving stardom

As for the argument that movie stars cheapen the integrity of cinema, 鈥淚 don鈥檛 think they鈥檙e bad for film as an art form,鈥� Farmer says. 鈥淎udiences have this idea of who this person is as a star or as a performer, which can make storytelling a lot easier. You have this sense of, 鈥業 know who Humphrey Bogart is and the roles he plays,鈥� so a lot of the work of creating the character has already been done. You can have a director saying, 鈥業 want this person in the role because people鈥檚 understanding of who this person is will help create the film.鈥� You can have Frank Capra cast Jimmy Stewart and the work of establishing the character as a lovable nice guy is already done.鈥�

As the movie industry evolved away from the studio system, the role of the movie star鈥攁nd what audiences wanted and expected from stars鈥攁lso began changing, Farmer says. While there was still room for stars who were good at doing the thing for which they were known鈥攖he John Waynes who were excellent at playing the John Wayne character鈥攖here also were 鈥渃hameleon鈥� stars who disappeared into roles and wanted to be known for their talent rather than their hair and makeup.

As film evolved, so did technology and culture, Farmer says. With each year, there were more channels, more outlets, more media to dilute what had been a monoculture of film.

鈥淏efore everyone had cable and streaming services and social media, movies were much more of a cultural touchpoint,鈥� Farmer says. 鈥淧eople wanted to dress like Humphrey Bogart or Audrey Hepburn. Faye Dunaway wears a beret in Bonnie and Clyde and beret sales go off the charts. People went to the movies, and they recognized and admired these stars.

鈥淥ne of the markers of stardom is can an individual actor carry a mediocre film to financial success? Another would be, are there people who have an almost obsessive interest in these stars, to the point of modeling themselves after star? Stars tap into a sort of zeitgeist.鈥�

However, the growth and fragmentation of media have meant that viewers have more avenues to see films and more ways to access stars. Even when A-listers鈥� social media are clearly curated by an army of publicists and stylists, fans can access them at any time and feel like they know them, Farmer says.

鈥淢ovies are just less central to people鈥檚 lives than they used to be,鈥� Farmer says. 鈥淭here are other forms of media that people spend their time on, to the point that younger audiences are as likely to know someone who starred in a movie as someone who鈥檚 a social media influencer. But that鈥檚 just a different kind of stardom.

鈥淚 think the film industry really wants movie stars, but I鈥檓 not sure viewers necessarily care all that much. Again, it鈥檚 always the question of, if you鈥檙e spending millions and millions of dollars on a product and you want a return on that, how can you achieve that without making another superhero movie or another horror movie? The industry wants movie stars and audiences just want to be entertained.鈥�

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Beer historian and 欧美口爆视频 Boulder Assistant Professor Travis Rupp explains why canned beer, celebrating its 90th anniversary today, has been 鈥榠mmensely impactful鈥� for the industry

鈥淚t's Saturday, y'all, here's a plan
I'm gonna throw back a couple 鈥�
Until the point where I can't stand
No, nothing picks me up like a beer can.鈥�

• From 鈥淏eer Can鈥� by Luke Combs

On Jan. 24, 1935, some shoppers in Virginia were likely scratching their heads and gawking at something they hadn鈥檛 seen before鈥�beer in cans鈥晄辫别肠颈蹿颈肠补濒濒测, Krueger鈥檚 Cream Ale and Krueger鈥檚 Finest Beer from the Gottfried Krueger Brewing Company. Up until then, beer drinkers had enjoyed their suds in bottles. 

Today, canned beer is commonplace, but according to beer archaeologist and historian Travis Rupp, a University of 欧美口爆视频 Boulder teaching assistant professor of classics, even though canning would prove to be 鈥渋mmensely impactful鈥� for the industry, neither brewers nor consumers cared much for cans initially.

鈥淭here were false claims made about metal flavor leaching into canned beverages because the beer was coming in contact with the aluminum,鈥� Rupp says. 鈥淲here this may have been the case with early steel or aluminum cans, it wasn鈥檛 true for most of the container's history.鈥�

Rupp adds that even as late as 2015, glass bottles were viewed as better containers for beer, given that they were 鈥渘icer鈥� for presentation.

Yet today, cans have emerged as the clear winner in the beer game. A 欧美口爆视频 example: MillerCoors Rocky Mountain Metal Container, based near the Coors campus in Golden, now churns out roughly .

鈥淐ans are the best containers for beer. They don鈥檛 let in sunlight or oxygen, which are both detrimental to beer,鈥� says Rupp. 鈥淏ottles let in sunlight. Even brown or amber bottles allow a small percentage of ultraviolet rays through, which can skunk or spoil the beer. Bottles also can leach in oxygen through the cap over time as the seal breaks down. Bottles still have a place for cellaring or aging high gravity barrel-aged beers or sours, but if you want your beer to stay and taste fresh the longest, you opt for cans.鈥�

The case for cans

Over the decades, cans have also helped brewers鈥� bottom lines: 鈥淐ans are far cheaper because they鈥檙e much lighter to ship,鈥� Rupp explains. 鈥淔reight shipping costs are mostly dictated by weight. This ultimately can result in higher profits for breweries and lower costs for consumers. They鈥檙e also far, far cheaper to store, since they require far less space than glass bottles and cartons.鈥�

Long before cans made their debut, Rupp says some breweries tried replacing wooden casks with metal kegs throughout the 19th century, but no protective liner existed to prevent metallic leaching in these containers. 鈥淎nd given the long duration that beer would sit in the metal casks before serving, the flavor would become quite awful. It wasn鈥檛 until the 1960s that stainless steel kegs hit the market.鈥�

欧美口爆视频 that metallic-flavor-leaching debate, Rupp says aluminum can producers now apply a patented protective liner to the inside of their cans to prevent leaching. 鈥淚f you cut open a can produced by the Ball Corporation [the global packaging giant], you鈥檒l find 鈥� a dull grayish-white crosshatched pattern in the can. This is the protective liner, and I assure you no metal flavor is leaching into your beer.鈥�

But for Rupp, perhaps the most impressive technology comes in what鈥檚 called the seaming process on cans. The ends (or top) of the can are produced separately. Once the cans are filled, the end is placed on top and goes through a series of rollers and chucks to seam the top of the can.

鈥淭his bond is so tight that the sides of the can will fail before the seam does. It鈥檚 a really cool advancement in canning technology, as are canning machines in general that work hard to ensure no oxygen ends up in the beer before the cans are sealed. We鈥檝e come a long way from church keys and pull tabs on beer cans.鈥�

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